Background Perovskite photovoltaic cells have demonstrated high efficiencies at small scales, both on their own and in conjunction with a bottom cell (such as silicon) to form a tandem. One challenge to scaling up the production of perovskite photovoltaic cells is the lack of effective methods that form uniform perovskite films over different sizes...

Multi-layered CdTe solar cell devices have properties that are promising but face low conversion efficiencies and high manufacturing costs. In contrast to typical monocrystalline Si and GaAs materials, CdTe cells are made up of polycrystalline materials and thus, have poor open circuit voltages which are responsible for the low efficiencies. Therefore,...