Background Electronic devices that use clocks (e.g., smartphones, cars, GPS) require stability of timing reference signals. For wireless and wireline communications applications, short-term clock stability is an important factor, and long-term stability is less of a concern due to periodic synchronizations between the radio nodes. Short-term clock...

When transmitting and receiving electromagnetic signals, there is a need to match the frequencies and the phases of both a received signal and a locally generated signal. In terms of signal to noise ratio (SNR), the alignment of the phases gives the best results for retrieving any data that is modulated on the received signal. Better SNR yields higher...

5G wireless systems are designed to meet the increasing demand for high data rates but face challenges like signal obstruction, poor penetration, high propagation loss, and inadequate scattering. Active relays have emerged as a solution to these issues by re-routing signals to avoid obstructions, ensuring uninterrupted 5G service. However, in dense...